"The chemists who uphold dualism are far from being agreed among themselves; nevertheless, all of them in maintaining their opinion, rely upon the phenomena of chemical reactions. For a long time the uncertainty of this method has been pointed out: it has been shown repeatedly, that the atoms put into movement during a reaction take at that time a new arrangement, and that it is impossible to deduce the old arrangement from the new one. It is as if, in the middle of a game of chess, after the disarrangement of all the pieces, one of the players should wish, from the inspection of the new place occupied by each piece, to determine that which it originally occupied." (Auguste Laurent, "Chemical Method", 1855)
"And as the number of combinations that can be made on the chess-board, is so great that probably no two games exactly alike were ever played; so no two games which the student plays with nature to wrest from her hidden truths, which were worth playing at all, ever made use of quite the same methods in quite the same way." (Alfred Marshall, "Principles of Economics", 1890)
"Imagine that [...] the world is something like a great chess game being played by the gods, and we are observers of the game. [...] If we watch long enough, we may eventually catch on to a few of the rules [...]. However, we might not be able to understand why a particular move is made in the game, merely because it is too complicated and our minds are limited [...]. We must limit ourselves to the more basic question of the rules of the game. If we know the rules, we consider that we 'understand' the world." (Richard P. Feynman, "The Feynman Lectures on Physics", 1964)
"If arithmetical skill is the measure of intelligence, then computers have been more intelligent than all human beings all along. If the ability to play chess is the measure, then there are computers now in existence that are more intelligent than any but a very few human beings. However, if insight, intuition, creativity, the ability to view a problem as a whole and guess the answer by the “feel” of the situation, is a measure of intelligence, computers are very unintelligent indeed. Nor can we see right now how this deficiency in computers can be easily remedied, since human beings cannot program a computer to be intuitive or creative for the very good reason that we do not know what we ourselves do when we exercise these qualities." (Isaac Asimov, "Machines That Think", 1983)
"Chess is a unique cognitive nexus, a place where art and science come together in the human mind and are then refined and improved by experience." (Garry Kasparov, "How Life Imitates Chess: Making the Right Moves, from the Board to the Boardroom", 2007)
"Finally, chess has a science - like special attraction since it lets the player first propose hypotheses of different strategic plans that are based on the game rules and possible moves of the pieces and then refute those hypotheses after careful investigation of the different lines of play. This process is analogous to the everyday work of a scientist." (Diego Rasskin-Gutman, "Chess Metaphors: Artificial Intelligence and the Human Mind", 2009)
"Game theory postulates rational behavior for each participant. Each player is conscious of the rules and behaves in accordance with them, each player has sufficient knowledge of the situation in which he or she is involved to be able to evaluate what the best option is when it comes to taking action (a move), and each player takes into account the decisions that might be made by other participants and their repercussions with respect to his or her own decision. Game theory about zero-sum games with two participants is relevant for chess. In this type of situation, each action that is favorable to one participant (player) is proportionally unfavorable for the opponent. Thus, the gain of one represents the loss of the other." (Diego Rasskin-Gutman, "Chess Metaphors: Artificial Intelligence and the Human Mind", 2009)
"The complexities of the universe are reflected in the complexities of our brains and in that natural, intimate and solitary activity that we call mind. In this process of matching up and representing, the inexhaustible human curiosity accepts the ancestral challenge of exploring the enormity of what we have yet to know. Chess, a world of fixed rules but with almost infinite borders, is an approachable model of that profound and endless human search." (Diego Rasskin-Gutman, "Chess Metaphors: Artificial Intelligence and the Human Mind", 2009)
"Playing chess involves following the rules of the game (ingenuity), and it also seems to require insight (intuition) into which rules to choose given different positions on the game board. To win at chess, it is not enough to apply the rules; you have to know which rules to select in the first place." (Erik J Larson, "The Myth of Artficial Intelligence: Why computers can't think the way we do", 2021)
"If chess permits a virtually infinite variety of games, the rules of nature surely do. Science may be immortal after all." (John Horgan)
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