"The employment of tropes, just as the use of schemata, is the exclusive privilege of the very learned. The rules governing tropes are also very strict, so that the latitude in which they may be used is definitely limited. For the rules teach that we may not extend figures. One who is studiously imitating the authors by using metaphors and figures, must take care to avoid crude figures that are hard to interpret. What is primarily desirable in language is lucid clarity and easy comprehensibility. Therefore schemata should be used only out of necessity or for ornamentation. Speech was invented as a means of communicating mental concepts; and figures [of speech] are admitted so far as they compensate by their utility for whatever they lack in conformity to the [rules of the grammatical] art." (John of Salisbury, "Metalogicon", 1159)
"The figure of speech or of thought by which we transfer the language and ideas of a familiar science to one with which we are less acquainted may be called Scientific Metaphor." (James C Maxwell, British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1871)
"These generalized forms of elementary ideas may be called metaphorical terms in the sense in which every abstract term is metaphorical. The characteristic of a truly scientific system of metaphors is that each term in its metaphorical use retains all the formal relations to the other terms of the system which it had in its original use. The method is then truly scientific - that is, not only a legitimate product of science but capable of generating science in its turn." (James C Maxwell, British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1871)
"Scientific metaphors are called models. They are made with the full knowledge that the connection between the metaphor and the real thing is primarily in the mind of the scientist. And they are made with a clearly definable purpose - as starting points of a deductive process. […] Like every other aspect of scientific procedure, the scientific metaphor is a pragmatic device, to be used freely as long as it serves its purpose, to be discarded without regrets when it fails to do so." (Anatol Rapoport, "Operational Philosophy", 1954)
"But metaphor is an indispensable tool of thought and expression - a characteristic of all human communication, even of that of the scientist. The conceptual models of cybernetics and the energy theories of psycho-analysis are, after all, only labeled metaphors." (Gregory Bateson, "Steps to an Ecology of Mind", 1972)
"Literature is as much a product of the technological and scientific milieu as it is of the artistic one. Some of the large ideas, call them theories or metaphors - that humans are machines, that the observer affects the phenomenon observed, that information can be quantified—alter the way work is done in art. Metaphors invented by artists imply new ways of seeing, demolish mere logic, provoke alternatives, and lead to new theories in science." (David Porush, "The Soft Machine", 1985)
"All sorts of metaphorical interpretations are culturally ingrained. An astute designer will think about these possible interpretations and work with them, rather than against them." (Noah Iliinsky & Julie Steel, "Designing Data Visualizations", 2011)
"Visual metaphors are about integrating a certain visual quality in your work that somehow conveys that extra bit of connection between the data, the design, and the topic. It goes beyond just the choice of visual variable, though this will have a strong influence. Deploying the best visual metaphor is something that really requires a strong design instinct and a certain amount of experience." (Andy Kirk, "Data Visualization: A successful design process", 2012)
"Metaphors do somehow make known what they mean by the comparison they involve. Whenever we use them, we transfer meaning according to some similarity. But statements such as the aforesaid do not make anything known. There is no inherent resemblance to justify calling law ‘a measure’ or ‘an image’ , nor is it customary to refer to it as such. If one says that law is literally ‘a measure’ or ‘an image’, he is either deceiving or being deceived. An image is something fashioned in the likeness of something else, but such is not an inherent characteristic of law. If, on the other hand, the statement is not made in a literal sense, it is evident that it is obscure, and worse than any metaphorical expression." (Aristotle)
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