On Metaphors IX

"The employment of tropes, just as the use of schemata, is the exclusive privilege of the very learned. The rules governing tropes are also very strict, so that the latitude in which they may be used is definitely limited. For the rules teach that we may not extend figures. One who is studiously imitating the authors by using metaphors and figures, must take care to avoid crude figures that are hard to interpret. What is primarily desirable in language is lucid clarity and easy comprehensibility. Therefore schemata should be used only out of necessity or for ornamentation. Speech was invented as a means of communicating mental concepts; and figures [of speech] are admitted so far as they compensate by their utility for whatever they lack in conformity to the [rules of the grammatical] art." (John of Salisbury, "Metalogicon", 1159)

"The figure of speech or of thought by which we  transfer the language and ideas of a familiar  science to one with which we are less acquainted  may be called Scientific Metaphor." (James C Maxwell, British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1871)

"These generalized forms of elementary ideas may be called metaphorical terms in the sense in which every abstract term is metaphorical. The characteristic of a truly scientific system of metaphors is that each term in its metaphorical use retains all the formal relations to the other terms of the system which it had in its original use. The method is then truly scientific - that is, not only a legitimate product of science but capable of generating science in its turn." (James C Maxwell, British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1871)

"Scientific metaphors are called models. They are made with the full knowledge that the connection between the metaphor and the real thing is primarily in the mind of the scientist. And they are made with a clearly definable purpose - as starting points of a deductive process. […] Like every other aspect of scientific procedure, the scientific metaphor is a pragmatic device, to be used freely as long as it serves its purpose, to be discarded without regrets when it fails to do so." (Anatol Rapoport, "Operational Philosophy", 1954) 

"But metaphor is an indispensable tool of thought and expression - a characteristic of all human communication, even of that of the scientist. The conceptual models of cybernetics and the energy theories of psycho-analysis are, after all, only labeled metaphors." (Gregory Bateson, "Steps to an Ecology of Mind", 1972) 

"Literature is as much a product of the technological and scientific milieu as it is of the artistic one. Some of the large ideas, call them theories or metaphors - that humans are machines, that the observer affects the phenomenon observed, that information can be quantified—alter the way work is done in art. Metaphors invented by artists imply new ways of seeing, demolish mere logic, provoke alternatives, and lead to new theories in science." (David Porush, "The Soft Machine", 1985)

"All sorts of metaphorical interpretations are culturally ingrained. An astute designer will think about these possible interpretations and work with them, rather than against them." (Noah Iliinsky & Julie Steel, "Designing Data Visualizations", 2011)

"Visual metaphors are about integrating a certain visual quality in your work that somehow conveys that extra bit of connection between the data, the design, and the topic. It goes beyond just the choice of visual variable, though this will have a strong influence. Deploying the best visual metaphor is something that really requires a strong design instinct and a certain amount of experience." (Andy Kirk, "Data Visualization: A successful design process", 2012)

"Metaphors do somehow make known what they mean by the comparison they involve. Whenever we use them, we transfer meaning according to some similarity. But statements such as the aforesaid do not make anything known. There is no inherent resemblance to justify calling law ‘a measure’ or ‘an image’ , nor is it customary to refer to it as such. If one says that law is literally ‘a measure’ or ‘an image’, he is either deceiving or being deceived. An image is something fashioned in the likeness of something else, but such is not an inherent characteristic of law. If, on the other hand, the statement is not made in a literal sense, it is evident that it is obscure, and worse than any metaphorical expression." (Aristotle)

Mental Models LXII

"A mental model is a collection of 'connected' autonomous objects. Running  a mental model corresponds to modifying the parameters of the model by propagating information using the internal rules and specified topology. Running a mental model can also occur when autonomous objects change state. For us the definition of state is distinct from the current parameter values of an object. A state change consists of the replacement of one set of behavior rules with another." (Michael D Williams et al, "Human Reasoning About a Simple Physical System", [in "Mental Models", Ed(s). Dedre Gentner & Albert L Stevens], 1983)

"Central to this conception of mental models is the notion of autonomous objects. An autonomous object is a mental object with an explicit representation of state, an explicit representation of its topological connections to other objects, and a set of internal parameters. Associated with each autonomous object is a set of rules which modify its parameters and thus specify its behavior." (Michael D Williams et al, "Human Reasoning About a Simple Physical System", [in "Mental Models", Ed(s). Dedre Gentner & Albert L Stevens], 1983)

"In the consideration of mental models we need really consider four different things: the target system, the conceputal model of that target system, the user’s mental model of the target system, and the scientist's conceptualization of that mental model. The system that the person is learning or using is, by definition, the target system. A conceptual model is invented to provide an appropriate representation of the target system, appropriate in the sense of being accurate, consistent, and complete." (Donald A Norman, "Some Observations on Mental Models" [in "Mental Models", Ed(s). Dedre Gentner & Albert L Stevens], 1983)

"The purpose of a mental model is to allow the person to understand and to anticipate the behavior of a physical system. This means that the model must have predictive power, either by applying rules of inference or by procedural derivation (in whatever manner these properties may be realized in a person); in other words, it should be possible for people to ' run' their models mentally. This means that the conceptual mental model must also include a model of the relevant human information processing and knowledge structures that make it possible for the person to use a mental model to predict and understand the physical system." (Donald A Norman, "Some Observations on Mental Models" [in "Mental Models"], Ed(s). Dedre Gentner & Albert L Stevens], 1983)

"From a functional point of view, mental models can be described as symbolic structures which permit people: to generate descriptions of the purpose of a system, to generate descriptions of the architecture of a system, to provide explanations of the state of a system, to provide explanations of the functioning of a system, to make predictions of future states of a system." (Gert Rickheit & Lorenz Sichelschmidt, "Mental Models: Some Answers, Some Questions, Some Suggestions", 1999)

"Under the label 'cognitive maps', mental models have been conceived of as the mental representation of spatial aspects of the environment. A mental model, in this sense, comprises the topology of an area, including relevant districts, landmarks, and paths. [...] Under the label 'naive physics', mental models have been conceived of as the mental representation of natural or technical systems. A mental model, in this sense, comprises the effective determinants, true or not, of the functioning of a physical system. [...] Under the label 'model based reasoning', the mental models notion is featured in yet another area of cognitive science - deductive reasoning. In contrast to the commonly held view that logical competence depends on formal rules of deduction, it has been argued that reasoning is a semantic process based on the manipulation of mental models. [...] Finally, under terms like 'discourse model', 'situation model', or 'scenario', mental models have been conceived of as the mental representation of a verbal description of some real or fictional state of affairs. The role of mental models in the comprehension of discourse is discussed in more detail below." (Gert Rickheit & Lorenz Sichelschmidt, "Mental Models: Some Answers, Some Questions, Some Suggestions", 1999)

"A mental model is an internal representation with analogical relations to its referential object, so that local and temporal aspects of the object are preserved. It comes somewhat close to the mental images people report having in their minds whilst processing information. The great advantage of the notion of mental models, however, is its ability to include the notion of a partner model and the notion of a situation model. Thus, mental models can build a bridge to the other two dimensions of communication, namely interaction and situation." (Gert Rickheit et al, "The concept of communicative competence" [in "Handbook of Communication Competence"], 2008)

"Because all mental models or mindsets are incomplete, we can engage in second-order studies, evaluations, judgments, and assessments about our own and other operative mental models. Of course this is highly complex since the act of reflection is itself a further of framing or reframing." (Patricia H Werhane et al, "Obstacles to Ethical: Decision-Making Mental Models, Milgram and the Problem of Obedience", 2013)

"Mental models bind our awareness within a particular scaffold and then selectively can filter the content we subsequently receive. Through recalibration using revised mental models, we argue, we cultivate strategies anew, creating new habits, and galvanizing more intentional and evolved mental models. This recalibration often entails developing a strong sense of self and self-worth, realizing that each of us has a range of moral choices that may deviate from those in authority, and moral imagination." (Patricia H Werhane et al, "Obstacles to Ethical: Decision-Making Mental Models, Milgram and the Problem of Obedience", 2013)

"These framing perspectives or mental models construe the data of our experiences, and it is the construed data that we call 'facts'. What we often call reality, or the world, is constructed or socially construed in certain ways such that one cannot get at the source of the data except through these construals." (Patricia H Werhane et al, "Obstacles to Ethical: Decision-Making Mental Models, Milgram and the Problem of Obedience", 2013)

Mental Models LXI (Conceptual Models IV)

"This making or imagining of models (not necessarily or usually a material model, but a conceptual model) is a recognised way of arriving at an understanding of recondite and ultra-sensual occurring say in the ether or elsewhere." (Hugh MacColl, Mind: a quarterly review of psychology and philosophy Vol. 14, 1905)

"We realize, however, that all scientific laws merely represent abstractions and idealizations expressing certain aspects of reality. Every science means a schematized picture of reality, in the sense that a certain conceptual construct is unequivocally related to certain features of order in reality […]" (Ludwig von Bertalanffy, "General System Theory", 1968)

"A conceptual model is neither idle nor faithful: it is, or rather it is supposed to be and so taken until further notice, an approximate representation of a real thing." (Mario Bunge, "Philosophy of Physics", 1972)

"A conceptual model is a qualitative description of the system and includes the processes taking place in the system, the parameters chosen to describe the processes, and the spatial and temporal scales of the processes." (A Avogadro & R C Ragaini, "Technologies for Environmental Cleanup", 1993)

"A conceptual model is a model of the projected system that is independent of implementation details." (Michael Worboys, "GIS: A Computing Perspective", 1995)

"A conceptual model is what in the model theory is called a set of formulas making statements about the world." (Dickson Lukose [Eds.], "Conceptual Structures: Fulfilling Peirce's Dream" Vol 5, 1997)

"A conceptual model is a representation of the system expertise using this formalism. An internal model is derived from the conceptual model and from a specification of the system transactions and the performance constraints." (Zbigniew W. Ras & Andrzej Skowron [Eds.], Foundations of Intelligent Systems: 10th International Symposium Vol 10, 1997)

"When we entrust the domain of values to those whose intellectual concerns are essentially centred on empirical facts, and whose conceptual frameworks are inevitably constructed around sets of empirical facts, we need not be surprised if the result is moral confusion." (Ronald W K Paterson, "The New Patricians", 1998)

"The purpose of a conceptual model is to provide a vocabulary of terms and concepts that can be used to describe problems and/or solutions of design. It is not the purpose of a model to address specific problems, and even less to propose solutions for them. Drawing an analogy with linguistics, a conceptual model is analogous to a language, while design patterns are analogous to rhetorical figures, which are predefined templates of language usages, suited particularly to specific problems." (Peter P Chen [Ed.], "Advances in Conceptual Modeling", 1999)

"To put it simply, we communicate when we display a convincing pattern, and we discover when we observe deviations from our expectations. These may be explicit in terms of a mathematical model or implicit in terms of a conceptual model. How a reader interprets a graphic will depend on their expectations. If they have a lot of background knowledge, they will view the graphic differently than if they rely only on the graphic and its surrounding text." (Andrew Gelman & Antony Unwin, "Infovis and Statistical Graphics: Different Goals, Different Looks", Journal of Computational and Graphical Statistics Vol. 22(1), 2013)

Mental Models LVI (Conceptual Models III)

"Mere deductive logic, whether you clothe it in mathematical symbols and phraseology or whether you enlarge its scope into a more general symbolic technique, can never take the place of clear relevant initial concepts of the meaning of your symbols, and among symbols I include words. If you are dealing with nature, your meanings must directly relate to the immediate facts of observation. We have to analyse first the most general characteristics of things observed, and then the more casual contingent occurrences. There can be no true physical science which looks first to mathematics for the provision of a conceptual model. Such a procedure is to repeat the errors of the logicians of the middle-ages." (Alfred N Whitehead, "Principle of Relativity", 1922)

"The 'physical' does not mean any particular kind of reality, but a particular kind of denoting reality, namely a system of concepts in the natural sciences which is necessary for the cognition of reality. 'The physical' should not be interpreted wrongly as an attribute of one part of reality, but not of the other ; it is rather a word denoting a kind of conceptual construction, as, e.g., the markers 'geographical' or 'mathematical', which denote not any distinct properties of real things, but always merely a manner of presenting them by means of ideas." (Moritz Schlick, "Allgemeine Erkenntnislehre", 1925)

"The rule is derived inductively from experience, therefore does not have any inner necessity, is always valid only for special cases and can anytime be refuted by opposite facts. On the contrary, the law is a logical relation between conceptual constructions; it is therefore deductible from upper laws and enables the derivation of lower laws; it has as such a logical necessity in concordance with its upper premises; it is not a mere statement of probability, but has a compelling, apodictic logical value once its premises are accepted."(Ludwig von Bertalanffy, "Kritische Theorie der Formbildung", 1928)

"As perceivers we select from all the stimuli falling on our senses only those which interest us, and our interests are governed by a pattern-making tendency, sometimes called a schema." (Mary Douglas, "Purity and Danger", 1966)

"Whether or not a given conceptual model or representation of a physical system happens to be picturable, is irrelevant to the semantics of the theory to which it eventually becomes attached. Picturability is a fortunate psychological occurrence, not a scientific necessity. Few of the models that pass for visual representations are picturable anyhow. For one thing, the model may be and usually is constituted by imperceptible items such as unextended particles and invisible fields. True, a model can be given a graphic representation - but so can any idea as long as symbolic or conventional diagrams are allowed. Diagrams, whether representational or symbolic, are meaningless unless attached to some body of theory. On the other hand theories are in no need of diagrams save for psychological purposes. Let us then keep theoretical models apart from visual analogues."  (Mario Bunge, "Philosophy of Physics", 1973)

"The understanding of a thing begins and ends with some conceptual model of it. The model is the better, the more accurate, and inclusive. But even rough models can be used to guide - or misguide - research." (Bunge A Mario, "Philosophy in Crisis: The Need for Reconstruction", 2001)

"A conceptual model is a mental image of a system, its components, its interactions. It lays the foundation for more elaborate models, such as physical or numerical models. A conceptual model provides a framework in which to think about the workings of a system or about problem solving in general. An ensuing operational model can be no better than its underlying conceptualization." (Henry N Pollack, "Uncertain Science … Uncertain World", 2005)

"[...] a single thing may elicit several appearances, various conceptual models of it, or several plans of action for it, depending on the subject’s abilities and interests." (Mario Bunge, "Chasing Reality: Strife over Realism", 2006)

"Although fiction is not fact, paradoxically we need some fictions, particularly mathematical ideas and highly idealized models, to describe, explain, and predict facts.  This is not because the universe is mathematical, but because our brains invent or use refined and law-abiding fictions, not only for intellectual pleasure but also to construct conceptual models of reality." (Mario Bunge, "Chasing Reality: Strife over Realism", 2006)

"At all events, our world pictures may have components of all three kinds: perceptual, conceptual, and praxiological (action-theoretical).  This is because there are three gates to the outer world: perception, conception, and action. However, ordinarily only one or two of them need be opened: combinations of all three, as in building a house according to a blueprint, are the exception.  We may contemplate a landscape without forming either a conceptual model of it or a plan to act upon it.  And we may build a theoretical model of an imperceptible thing, such as an invisible extrasolar planet, on which we cannot act." (Mario Bunge, "Chasing Reality: Strife over Realism", 2006)

On Diagrams (1950-1974)

"The diagrams incorporate a large amount of information. Their use provides extensive savings in space and in mental effort. In the case of many theorems, the setting up of the correct diagram is the major part of the proof. We therefore urge that the reader stop at the end of each theorem and attempt to construct for himself the relevant diagram before examining the one which is given in the text. Once this is done, the subsequent demonstration can be followed more readily; in fact, the reader can usually supply it himself." (Samuel Eilenberg & Norman E. Steenrod, "Foundations of Algebraic Topology", 1952)

"A logic machine is a device, electrical or mechanical, designed specifically for solving problems in formal logic. A logic diagram is a geometrical method for doing the same thing. […] A logic diagram is a two-dimensional geometric figure with spatial relations that are isomorphic with the structure of a logical statement. These spatial relations are usually of a topological character, which is not surprising in view of the fact that logic relations are the primitive relations underlying all deductive reasoning and topological properties are, in a sense, the most fundamental properties of spatial structures. Logic diagrams stand in the same relation to logical algebras as the graphs of curves stand in relation to their algebraic formulas; they are simply other ways of symbolizing the same basic structure." (Martin Gardner, "Logic Machines and Diagrams", 1958)

"The diagrams and circles aid the understanding by making it easy to visualize the elements of a given argument. They have considerable mnemonic value […] They have rhetorical value, not only arousing interest by their picturesque, cabalistic character, but also aiding in the demonstration of proofs and the teaching of doctrines. It is an investigative and inventive art. When ideas are combined in all possible ways, the new combinations start the mind thinking along novel channels and one is led to discover fresh truths and arguments, or to make new inventions. Finally, the Art possesses a kind of deductive power." (Martin Gardner, "Logic Machines and Diagrams", 1958) 

"An information retrieval system is therefore defined here as any device which aids access to documents specified by subject, and the operations associated with it. The documents can be books, journals, reports, atlases, or other records of thought, or any parts of such records - articles, chapters, sections, tables, diagrams, or even particular words. The retrieval devices can range from a bare list of contents to a large digital computer and its accessories. The operations can range from simple visual scanning to the most detailed programming." (Brian C Vickery, "The Structure of Information Retrieval Systems", 1959)

"Diagrams are sometimes used, not merely to convey several pieces of information such as several time series on one chart, but also to provide visual evidence of relationships between the series." (Alfred R Ilersic, "Statistics", 1959)

"It is extremely helpful to the imagination to have a geometric picture available in terms of which we can visualize sets and operations on sets. […] Diagrammatic thought of this kind is admittedly loose and imprecise; nevertheless, the reader will find it invaluable. No mathematics, however abstract it may appear, is ever carried on without the help of mental images of some kind, and these are often nebulous, personal, and difficult to describe." (George F Simmons, "Introduction to Topology and Modern Analysis", 1963)

"A model is a qualitative or quantitative representation of a process or endeavor that shows the effects of those factors which are significant for the purposes being considered. A model may be pictorial, descriptive, qualitative, or generally approximate in nature; or it may be mathematical and quantitative in nature and reasonably precise. It is important that effective means for modeling be understood such as analog, stochastic, procedural, scheduling, flow chart, schematic, and block diagrams." (Harold Chestnut, "Systems Engineering Tools", 1965) 

"A diagram thus enables us to discover the internal categorization which characterizes the information being processed in a much shorter time than does a map. […] A diagram permits the rapid and precise internal processing of information having three components, but it does not permit introducing the information into a universal system of visual memorization and geographic comparison. It is a closed graphic system, limited solely to the information being processed. […] In a diagram, one begins by attributing a meaning to the planar dimensions, then one plots the correspondences." (Jacques Bertin, "Semiology of graphics", 1967) 

"A graphic is a diagram when correspondences on the plane can be established among all elements of another component." (Jacques Bertin, "Semiology of graphics", 1967) 

"To analyse graphic representation precisely, it is helpful to distinguish it from musical, verbal and mathematical notations, all of which are perceived in a linear or temporal sequence. The graphic image also differs from figurative representation essentially polysemic, and from the animated image, governed by the laws of cinematographic time. Within the boundaries of graphics fall the fields of networks, diagrams and maps. The domain of graphic imagery ranges from the depiction of atomic structures to the representation of galaxies and extends into the spheres of topography and cartography."  (Jacques Bertin, "Semiology of graphics", 1967) 

"When the correspondences on the plane can be established between: - all the divisions of one component - and all the divisions of another component, the construction is a DIAGRAM." (Jacques Bertin, "Semiology of graphics", 1967) 

"Pure mathematics are concerned only with abstract propositions, and have nothing to do with the realities of nature. There is no such thing in actual existence as a mathematical point, line or surface. There is no such thing as a circle or square. But that is of no consequence. We can define them in words, and reason about them. We can draw a diagram, and suppose that line to be straight which is not really straight, and that figure to be a circle which is not strictly a circle. It is conceived therefore by the generality of observers, that mathematics is the science of certainty." (William Godwin, "Thoughts on Man", 1969)

"A diagram is worth a thousand proofs." (Carl E Linderholm, "Mathematics Made Difficult", 1971)

"Category theory starts with the observation that many properties of mathematical systems can be unified and simplified by a presentation with diagrams of arrows." (Saunders Mac Lane, "Categories for the Working Mathematician", 1971)

"The result of the implementation, the logical design, is traditionally shown as a series of block diagrams. These blocks represent in effect a series of statements, Actually, a direct presentation of these statements is more suitable and, although less familiar, more easily understood. The Harvard Mark IV was to large degree designed and described by such statements, as has been the case with several subsequent developments." (Gerrit Blaauw, "Computer Architecture", 1972) 

"Whether or not a given conceptual model or representation of a physical system happens to be picturable, is irrelevant to the semantics of the theory to which it eventually becomes attached. Picturability is a fortunate psychological occurrence, not a scientific necessity. Few of the models that pass for visual representations are picturable anyhow. For one thing, the model may be and usually is constituted by imperceptible items such as unextended particles and invisible fields. True, a model can be given a graphic representation - but so can any idea as long as symbolic or conventional diagrams are allowed. Diagrams, whether representational or symbolic, are meaningless unless attached to some body of theory. On the other hand theories are in no need of diagrams save for psychological purposes. Let us then keep theoretical models apart from visual analogues."  (Mario Bunge, "Philosophy of Physics", 1973)

Mental Models LIII (Conceptual Models II)

"But metaphor is an indispensable tool of thought and expression - a characteristic of all human communication, even of that of the scientist. The conceptual models of cybernetics and the energy theories of psycho-analysis are, after all, only labeled metaphors." (Gregory Bateson, "Steps to an Ecology of Mind", 1972)

"[…] conceptual models, even when incorrect, are useful to the extent that criticism of the model may point to new theoretical developments."  (Gregory Bateson, "Steps to an Ecology of Mind", 1972)

"As the least conscious layer of the user experience, the conceptual model has the paradoxical quality of also having the most impact on usability. If an appropriate conceptual model is faithfully represented throughout the interface, after users recognize and internalize the model, they will have a fundamental understanding of what the application does and how to operate it." (Bob Baxley, "Making the Web Work: Designing Effective Web Applications", 2002) 

"A conceptual model of an interactive application is, in summary: the structure of the application - the objects and their operations, attributes, and relation-ships; an idealized view of the how the application works – the model designers hope users will internalize; the mechanism by which users accomplish the tasks the application is intended to support." (Jeff Johnson & Austin Henderson, "Conceptual Models", 2011)

"Conceptual models are best thought of as design-tools - a way for designers to straighten out and simplify the design and match it to the users’ task-domain, thereby making it clearer to users how they should think about the application. The designers’ responsibility is to devise a conceptual model that seems natural to users based on the users’ familiarity with the task domain. If designers do their job well, the conceptual model will be the basis for users’ mental models of the application." (Jeff Johnson & Austin Henderson, "Conceptual Models", 2011)

"The conceptual model is not the users’ mental model of the application. […] users of an application form mental models of it to allow them to predict its behavior. A mental model is the user’s high-level understanding of how the application works; it allows the user to predict what the application will do in response to various user-actions. Ideally, a user’s mental model of an application should be similar to the designers’ conceptual model, but in practice the two models may differ significantly. Even if a user’s mental model is the same as the designer’s conceptual model, they are distinct models." (Jeff Johnson & Austin Henderson, "Conceptual Models", 2011)

"Briefly, a conceptual model is the configuration of conceptual elements and the navigation between them. As such, a conceptual model is the foundation of the user interface of any interactive system." (Avi Parush, "Conceptual Design for Interactive Systems", 2015)

"A conceptual model is a framework that is initially used in research to outline the possible courses of action or to present an idea or thought. When a conceptual model is developed in a logical manner, it will provide a rigor to the research process." (N Elangovan & R Rajendran, "Conceptual Model: A Framework for Institutionalizing the Vigor in Business Research", 2015) 

"Once we understand our user's mental model, we can capture it in a conceptual model. The conceptual model is a representation of the mental model using elements, relationships, and conditions. Our design and final system will be the tangible result of this conceptual model." (Pau Giner & Pablo Perea, "UX Design for Mobile, 2017) 

"A model or conceptual model is a schematic or representation that describes how something works. We create and adapt models all the time without realizing it. Over time, as you gain more information about a problem domain, your model will improve to better match reality." (James Padolsey, "Clean Code in JavaScript", 2020)

On Worldviews (2010-2019)

“It is hard to navigate across one’s environment without having some ideas, however coarse, about it. Indeed, to face any situation we must know whether it is real or imaginary, profane or sacred, sensitive or insensitive to our actions, and so on. This is why even lowly organisms develop, if not worldviews, at least rough sensory maps of their immediate environment – as noted by ethologists from the start. But it is generally assumed that only humans can build conceptual models of their environments. And, except for some philosophers, humans distinguish maps from the territories they represent.” (Mario Bunge, “Matter and Mind: A Philosophical Inquiry”, 2010)

“Worldviews are more a mental security blanket than a serious effort to understand the world.” (Bryan Caplan, “The Myth of the Rational Voter: Why Democracies Choose Bad Policies”, 2011)

“Hope is what you get when you suddenly realize that a different worldview is possible, a worldview in which the rich, the powerful, and the unscrupulous do not after all have the last word. The same worldview shift that is demanded by the resurrection of Jesus is the shift that will enable us to transform the world.” (Nicholas T Wright, “Surprised by Hope: Original, provocative and practical”, 2012)

“Also known as worldview, mental model, or mind-set, our perspective of the world is based on the sum total of our knowledge and experiences. It defines us, shaping our thoughts and actions because it represents the way we see ourselves and situations, how we judge the relative importance of things, and how we establish a meaningful relationship with everything around us.” (Navi Radjou, Prasad Kaipa, “From Smart to Wise: Acting and Leading with Wisdom”, 2013) 

“If worldviews or metanarratives can be compared to lenses, which of them brings things into the sharpest focus? This is not an irrational retreat from reason. Rather, it is about grasping a deeper order of things which is more easily accessed by the imagination than by reason.” (Alister McGrath, “If I Had Lunch with C. S. Lewis: Exploring the Ideas of C. S. Lewis on the Meaning of Life”, 2014)

"In the absence of clear information - in the absence of reliable statistics - people did what they had always done: filtered available information through the lens of their worldview." (Zachary Karabell, "The Leading Indicators: A short history of the numbers that rule our world", 2014)

“It is always easier to deny reality than to allow our worldview to be shattered […]” (Naomi Klein, “This Changes Everything”, 2014)

“A part is always too limited to explain the whole. You might picture a worldview as trying to stuff the entire universe into a box. Invariably, something will stick out of the box. Its categories are too ‘small’ to explain the world.” (Nancy Pearcey, “Finding Truth: 5 Principles for Unmasking Atheism, Secularism, and Other God Substitutes”, 2015)

“A worldview is a commitment, a fundamental orientation of the heart, that can be expressed as a story or in a set of presuppositions (assumptions which may be true, partially true or entirely false) which we hold (consciously or subconsciously, consistently or inconsistently) about the basic constitution of reality, and that provides the foundations on which we live and more and have our being.” (James W Sire, “Naming the Elephant: Worldview as a Concept”, 2015)

“Science, at its core, is simply a method of practical logic that tests hypotheses against experience. Scientism, by contrast, is the worldview and value system that insists that the questions the scientific method can answer are the most important questions human beings can ask, and that the picture of the world yielded by science is a better approximation to reality than any other.” (John Michael Greer, “After Progress: Reason and Religion at the End of the Industrial Age”, 2015) 

“A worldview consists of observations of the individual and other people with respect to the self, time and space, the natural and the supernatural and the sacred and profane. […] Beliefs about the world do not reside in the human mind in chaotic disorder; rather they form a latent system. A worldview cannot, however, be viewed as a well-organised network of cognitive models or a static collection of values; instead it should be regarded as the product of a process shaped by historical, cultural and social perspectives and contexts.” (Helena Helve, “A longitudinal perspective on worldviews, values and identities”, 2016)

“A worldview is simply someone's relatively organized understanding of what the world is actually like. [...] Worldviews have four elements that help us understand how a person's story fits together: creation, fall, redemption, and restoration. ‘Creation’ tells us how things began, where everything came from (including us), the reason for our origins, and what ultimate reality is like. ‘Fall’ describes the problem (since we all know something has gone wrong with the world). ‘Redemption’ gives us the solution, the way to fix what went wrong. ‘Restoration’ describes what the world would look like once the repair begins to take place.” (Greg Koukl, [interview with Jonathan Petersen], 2017)

Mental Models XII

"It has become increasingly evident in recent times, however, that nature works on a different plan. Her fundamental laws do not govern the world as it appears in our mental picture in any very direct way, but instead they control a substratum of which we cannot form a mental picture without introducing irrelevancies." (Paul Dirac, "The Principles of Quantum Mechanics", 1935)

"The solution of the difficulty is that the two mental pictures which experiment lead us to form - the one of the particles, the other of the waves - are both incomplete and have only the validity of analogies which are accurate only in limiting cases." (Werner Heisenberg, "The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory", 1949)

"We must not leap to the fatalistic conclusion that we are stuck with the conceptual scheme that we grew up in. We can change it, bit by bit, plank by plank, though meanwhile there is nothing to carry us along but the evolving conceptual scheme itself. The philosopher's task was well compared by Neurath to that of a mariner who must rebuild his ship on the open sea." (Willard v. O Quine, "The Journal of Philosophy", 1950)

"A conceptual scheme is never discarded merely because of a few stubborn facts with which it cannot be reconciled; a conceptual scheme is either modified or replaced by a better one, never abandoned with nothing left to take its place." (James B Conant, "Science and Common Sense", 1951)

"Our acceptance of an ontology is, I think, similar in principle to our acceptance of a scientific theory, say a system of physics; we adopt, at least insofar as we are reasonable, the simplest conceptual scheme into which the disordered fragments of raw experience can be fitted and arranged." (Willard van Orman Quine, "From a Logical Point of View", 1953)

"Mental pictures offer us an opportunity to practice new traits and attitudes, which otherwise we could not do. This is possible because again - your nervous system cannot tell the difference between an actual experience and one that is vividly imagined." (Maxwell Maltz, "Psycho-Cybernetics", 1960)

"Science begins with the world we have to live in, accepting its data and trying to explain its laws. From there, it moves toward the imagination: it becomes a mental construct, a model of a possible way of interpreting experience." (Northrop Frye, "The Educated Imagination", 1963)

"Information is recorded in vast interconnecting networks. Each idea or image has hundreds, perhaps thousands, of associations and is connected to numerous other points in the mental network." (Peter Russell, "The Brain Book: Know Your Own Mind and How to Use it", 1979)

"Perceptual interpretive processes are applied to mental images in much the same way that they are applied to actual physical objects. In this sense, imagined objects can be 'interpreted' much like physical objects." (Ronald A. Finke, "Creative Imagery", 1990)

"Imagining the unseeable is hard, because imagining means having an image in your mind. And how can you have a mental image of something you have never seen? Like perception itself, the models of science are embedded inextricably in the current worldview we call culture." (K C Cole, "First You Build a Cloud and Other Reflections on Physics as a Way of Life", 1999)

Mental Models V

"He [Simonides] inferred that persons desiring to train this faculty [of memory] must select places and form mental images of the things they wish to remember and store those images in the places, so that the order of the places will preserve the order of the things, and the images of the things will denote the things themselves, and we shall employ the places and images respectively as a wax writing-tablet and the letters written on it." (Marcus Tullius Cicero [cited in Yates 1966], “De Oratore”, 55 BC)

“For the Mind feels those things that it conceives in understanding no less than those it has in the memory. For the eyes of the mind, by which it sees and observes things, are demonstrations [descriptions] themselves.” (Baruch Spinoza, “Ethics, Demonstrated in Geometrical Order”, 1677)

“One says of a person who has travelled much, that he has seen the world. to the knowledge of the world than just seeing it. Whoever wants to must draw up a plan beforehand and must not just regard the world senses.” (Immanuel Kant “Physische Geographie” [Physical Geography], 1802)

“Acting is the physical representation of a mental picture and the projection of an emotional concept.” (Laurette Taylor, “The Quality You Need Most”, Green Book Magazine, 1914)

“The conception of lines of force was introduced by Faraday to form a mental picture of the processes going on in the electric field. To him these lines were not mere mathematical abstractions. He ascribed to them properties that gave them a real physical significance.” (Hendrik van der Bijl, “The Thermionic Vacuum Tube and Its Applications”, 1920)

“A geometrical-physical theory as such is incapable of being directly pictured, being merely a system of concepts. But these concepts serve the purpose of bringing a multiplicity of real or imaginary sensory experiences into connection in the mind. To ‘visualise’ a theory, or bring it home to one's mind, therefore means to give a representation to that abundance of experiences for which the theory supplies the schematic arrangement” (Albert Einstein, “Geometry and Experience”, 1921)

“[…] learning consists not in stimulus-response connections but in the building up in the nervous system of sets which function like cognitive maps […] such cognitive maps may be usefully characterized as varying from a narrow strip variety to a broader comprehensive variety.” (Edward C Tolman, "Cognitive maps in rats and men", 1948)

"We never have any understanding of any subject matter except in terms of our own mental constructs of ‘things’ and ‘happenings’ of that subject matter.” (Douglas T Ross, "Structured analysis (SA): A language for communicating ideas", IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering Vol. 3 No. 1, 1977)

“I often told the fanatics of realism that there is no such thing as realism in art: it only exists in the mind of the observer. Art is a symbol, a thing conjuring up reality in our mental image. That is why I don't see any contradiction between abstract and figurative art either.” (Antoni Tàpies, “Tàpies, Werke auf Papier 1943 – 2003”, 2004)

“A conceptual model is a mental image of a system, its components, its interactions. It lays the foundation for more elaborate models, such as physical or numerical models. A conceptual model provides a framework in which to think about the workings of a system or about problem solving in general. An ensuing operational model can be no better than its underlying conceptualization.” (Henry N Pollack, “Uncertain Science … Uncertain World”, 2005)

See also:
Mental Models I, II, III, IV, VI, VII, VIII